Theorizing on the Stereotyping of Black Male Student-Athletes Issues and Implications

Since the 19th century to present day, stereotyping of Black male athletes has depicted them as athletically superior while intellectually inferior to White male athletes (Harrison & Lawrence, 2004). In this paper, the purpose is to theorize on the race-based stereotyping of Black male studentathletes at the collegiate level. Our comments are situated in the tenets of psychological critical race theory (Jones, 1998) as we discuss racial, social, economical, cultural, and psychological [stereotyping] factors that affect Black male student-athletes’ academic and athletic experiences. Implications and challenges around these issues are discussed for academic faculty, coaches, advisors, and support personnel as they assume responsibility for teaching, coaching, advising, and supporting student-athletes’ academic progress. “Haven’t you ever wondered why the [W]hite man genuinely applauds a [B] lack man who achieves excellence with his body in the field of sports, while he hates to see a [B]lack man achieve excellence in his mind” (Cleaver, 1968, p. 151). Historically situated and contentious, the preceding quote nonetheless is an appropriate start to this discussion on race and racism, and stereotyping of Black student-athletes in the United States (US). Our purpose in this paper is to theorize on the stereotyping of Black male student-athletes at the collegiate level. The first Black athletes to become dominant sport figures in the US were boxers. For example, Jack Johnson won the world heavyweight championship. Black athletes such as Johnson fought other Black boxers and less often fought White boxers in the 1890s and 1900s (Reese, 1998). Since then, many researchers have espoused and debated a mix of anthropometrical (Spurgeon & Meredith, 1980), biological, kinesiological, and physiological (Entine, 2000; Kane, 1971), cultural and social (Edwards, 2000; Goldsmith, 2003; Harrison, Azzarito, & Burden, 2004), and psychological and sociological (Harrison, 1995, 2001; Harrison, Harrison, & Moore, 2002) explanations on Black male athletes’ dominance in selected sports (e.g., basketball, boxing, football, track and field; Harrison & Lawrence, 2004; Miller, 1998; Wig204 Samuel R. Hodge et al. gins, 1989). It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss each of these many debates. But the reader should read papers by David K. Wiggins (1989) and Patrick B. Miller (1998) devoted to the various debates waged on this topic. Less debatable is the argument that the US has an insidious legacy of racial stratifications and inequalities due to the pervasiveness and permanency of racism (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Historically, legalized segregation subjected Black people to political, moral, social, educational, economical, and legal injustices (Massey & Denton, 1993). America has moved from legalized segregation and discrimination based on race and racism to ‘us’ and ‘them’ inequalities, which are influenced by and influences racial stratifications (Loury, 2002). The well-documented history of racism in the US is also manifested in the stereotyping of Blacks in collegiate sports (Brooks & Althouse, 2000; Sailes, 1991, 1993; Singer, 2005). From a critical race perspective (Ladson-Billings, 1998), we submit that it is the persistence of this troubled past and present day manifestations of racism and stereotypic beliefs in collegiate sports that warrant further commentary (Harrison & Lawrence, 2004). Since the nineteenth century and still today, lingering stereotypic beliefs about Blacks depict them as athletically superior while intellectually inferior to Whites (Harrison, 2001; Harrison et al., 2002; Harrison & Lawrence, 2004; Kane, 1971; Miller, 1998; Sailes, 1993; Wiggins, 1989). Race-based stereotypic beliefs have present day implications such as imposing psychological barriers on performance that potentially reduce a student-athlete’s ability to perform to his potential (Donnor, 2005; Singer, 2005; Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999). On this point, Stone et al. (1999) asserted that athletic performance is impeded out of concern about confirming a negative stereotype which “increases anxiety and in part because it creates self-doubt about the ability to perform” (p. 1224). Research supports the plausibility that regarding studentathletes, particularly Black males, negative stereotypic beliefs about their intelligence can lead them to lower their expectations in academic contexts (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Stone et al., 1999). Thus, it is important that academic faculty, coaches, academic advisors, and support personnel understand how race-sport stereotypes can influence the aspirations of youth toward or away from various athletic pursuits at the expense of their academic success (Harrison et al., 2004; Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999). From a critical race perspective, we focus this paper on the social and psychological construction of race, racism, and stereotyping as associated with historical and contemporary factors (social, economical, cultural, and psychological) that influence Black male student-athletes’ athletic and academic experiences. These factors continue to influence Black and other youth to participate or not participate in selected sports (Harrison et al., 2004; Harrison et al., 1999). Later, implications and future challenges around these issues are discussed for colleges and universities as they have responsibility for student-athletes on their campuses. In the next section, we discuss the